To say Egyptian mythology and the pantheon of gods and goddesses presents itself in a straightforward, easy to understand approach means you have probably already given up trying. No god presents themselves in a more confused manner than the falcon-headed Horus. The particular Horus getting worshipped depends on where in Egypt you visited. But even here in Edfu, local rules do not apply.

At Edfu – Djeba in ancient Egypt, the main target for cruise boat tourists is the Temple of Horus of Behdet (Behdet is a city not of Upper Egypt like Edfu but actually is located in the Nile Delta of Lower Egypt). As a multi-faceted god appearing in different guises, Horus shows up here as a hawk-headed man wearing the double crown of Egypt or – as an aspect of the sun god – as a sun disc flanked with the wings of a hawk. Hawk, falcon, sun disc, they are all Horus. Then add on Greek and Roman additions to the stories and you have Horus at Edfu, or I should say Appollonopolis as known in Ptolemaic times.

HORUS

Horus started as one of the earliest of Egyptian gods dating back to the Predynastic Period when he became intertwined with royalty. At a king’s coronation, a king received Horus names in addition to his birth name. This associated the king with the god, visualized then as a falcon. Horus (“The Distant One”) appears to originate from Hierakonpolis as a sky god with his left eye the moon and right eye, the sun. As Egypt expanded with unification, so did Horus’ role.

By the end of the Old Kingdom, Horus became part of the Osiris triad as the son of Isis and Osiris. In the process, he gained a couple new titles – Hor-nedj-itef (“Horus, the Protector of His Father”) and later, Harsiese (“Horus, Son of Isis”) in Greek. Horus survived his childhood in the marshes of the Delta following the murder of his father Osiris. Brought up by his mother, Isis, they both evaded attempts by Seth, brother of Osiris, to ultimately triumph. Here, Horus became attached to healing.

EVER CHANGEABLE

But the story continues. As Hor-Wer (Haroeris in Greek), he became “Horus the Elder” or “Horus the Great”. Here, Horus grown up now stands ready to fight Seth for the crown of Egypt.  But he can also come as the son of Nut and Geb – thus a brother of Osiris, Isis Seth and Nephthys or he can be a husband to Hathor. In the Book of the Dead, he fathers four children with Isis. As a healer, Horus remains remembered by people at Koh Ombo in the temple there which he shares with the crocodile god Sobek.

Horus can also be the rising and setting sun – Horakhty (“Horus of the Two Horizons”).  By uniting with the sun god Ra, he creates Ra-Horakhty, though in another aspect, he is Horemakhet or “Horus in the Horizon” associated in the New Kingdom with the Great Sphinx. Here, at Edfu, Horus of Behdet gains the throne of Egypt after the gods decide in his favor a dispute between him and Seth. That story told across ancient Egyptian history with deviations here and there.

The Eye of Horus

The Eye of Horus – wedjat – symbolizes the restoration of order – maat – after chaos – ifet. A popular symbol often worn as an amulet. Supposedly Seth disfigured Horus’ face by plucking an eye from him. As described in the Pyramid Texts, the injury could only reverse with a god spitting on it. Horus, in retaliation, took Seth’s testicles. Thoth, in the Book of the Dead, restores Horus’ eye. The variations of the story are wild and varied – one has to do with a black pig while Anubis gets into the scene in another story. The symbol for the Eye of Horus some think evolved later into the symbol for medications ℞.

Edfu and Horus

The priests of the temple here at Edfu – Appollonopolis – mark the temple as the beginning point of creation. Horus of Behdet – a winged sun disc or winged scarab beetle having fused with Ra. In the beginning waters covered the world, here at Edfu, the waters were in the form of a gigantic flood. A mass of reeds was seen floating in the water by a hovering falcon. He perched on the float when it became stable – “reed float” or “perch” in ancient Egyptian is Djeba, also the ancient name for the city.  

The falcon brought order to the chaos by flapping his wings thereby stretching the limits of the sky. Duat – the afterlife – came into existence about now so there was sky, duat and water. Horus flew back into the dark sky bringing forth the first sunrise. Order began to form from the flooded chaos. With the subsidence of waters eventually, fertile ground for planting was uncovered and a temple built to honor the culmination of creation, a literal reed on giving the Horus falcon rest.

FESTIVALS

Coronation of the Sacred Falcon

An annual event, the Coronation of the Sacred Falcon, represented the reigning king in the form of a living falcon. This served as a vessel for the ba spirit of Horus of Behdet. The falcon lived in the temple of the Sacred Falcon in front of the main pylon-gateway here.

Once a year, the statue of Horus came out in a small boat – barque – carried by the priests from the inner sanctums of the main temple. The procession passed by a row of falcons standing in the Temple of the Sacred Falcon where they were raised. No longer existing, this temple stood just east of the mammisi which does on the left side of the pronaos.

 The barque-shrine eventually tilted toward one of the falcons who would become the new King. Statue and shrine would return inside the main temple and displayed atop the center of the pylon in a window known as the Balcony of the Falcon. The falcon transferred back downstairs for anointing, and a feast shared between bird and priests ensued.

Festival of the Beautiful Meeting

Hathor, as husband of Horus, came upriver from her temple at Dendara each year to visit her husband here at Edfu. Along the 110 mile – 180 kilometer -journey, she visited other scared shrines and deities while people watched from the riverbanks. Here at Edfu, the Horus shrine would meet the Hathor shrine and the two proceeded to a nearby temple where offerings were given to maat and the Opening of the Mouth enabling the statues to continue to act as manifestations of the deities. The divine couple then floated to the Temple of Horus, to remarry. Resting together that night ending the first part of the celebration.

Next, the festival of Behdet took place in which the two shrine-statues along with priests and the local population would visit the local necropolis. Here, the two gods regenerated the nine divine souls of Behdet – ancestral gods of Edfu. After fourteen days of celebrations, Hathor would head back downriver for another year. Hathor thus visited her husband Horus of Edfu for a mystical marriage. Her return to Dendera announced the long-awaited flooding of the river.

A TEMPLE CONSTRUCTED

While there have been temples dating far back into ancient Egyptian history, the temple seen today is Ptolemaic in origin. The Ptolemies built the temple here – one of the largest Ptolemaic temples built in Upper Egypt – because of the relationship between pharaonic power and kinghood. The area of Upper Egypt served as a hotbed of anti-Greek feeling and the thought was by appeasing the old gods of Egypt, native Egyptian sentiment could soothe. Building and renovating temples served as a primary duty of kingship in ancient Egypt throughout history. Construction began 23 August 237 BC, but events would intervene and completion needed to wait until 70 BC.

The construction dates for the temple of Edfu, we know with unequalled accuracy – not only the dates when the first stone became laid, plus the additions, but also accurate dates of the official inaugurations and consecrations. Inscriptions give the day, the month and the year of the various phases of the construction of the temple and on one of the outer walls is a long text about the temple’s founding as well as its layout.

TODAY

The temple today represents the part of Edfu recovered from sands of time. At the time of Napoleon Bonaparte’s expedition to Egypt, the temple lay buried in the sand right up to the architraves (top of the supporting columns) during Napoleon Bonaparte’s expedition. Sand in the temple only became cleared out in 1859.

Edfu as a city dated back from the first Egyptian dynasties serving as the capital of the 2nd nome (province) of Upper Egypt. For the Ptolemies, sovereigns of foreign origin, the choice of Edfu to build a temple of this size was not by mere chance. Building a temple here simply followed pharaonic tradition. Horus of Edfu, the protector of Ra, and son of Osiris, served as the prototype of the sovereign to which all the kings of Egypt assimilated for three thousand years. Also, located not far from Thebes, the temple counterbalanced the influence of the powerful priests of Amun who proved quite rebellious during the Ptolemaic period.

PTOLEMY III

Ptolemy III Euergetes (the Benefactor) ruled Egypt at the apogee of the Ptolemaic reign. He succeeded his father on the throne in 246 BC. He married his half-cousin Berenice the same year which reunited Cyrene (eastern Libya) to Egypt (The two had broken apart during the reign of Berenice’s father). Then, like any good Ptolemy, Ptolemy III got himself involved in a war against the Seleucids – Third Syrian War. His armies got all of the way to Babylon which fell at the beginning of 245 BC before a revolt in Egypt forced him to backtrack. He suppressed this, the first of several revolts by native Egyptians, installing himself and his queen as gods themselves. The war, meanwhile, continued dragging on until 241 BC, though he would indirectly finance parties opposed Macedonia and the Seleucids.

In 238 BC, Ptolemy III entered into full partnership with the Egyptian priesthoods with his Canopus decree, a partnership persisting until the end of Ptolemaic rule. In addition to priestly order reforms, his support was emphasized as was his military successes in defending Egypt and return of religious artifacts captured by the Seleucids. The decree also added a leap day to the Egyptian calendar.

He financed construction projects at temples across Egypt with his most significant being the Temple of Horus here at Edfu. Another project he started was the temple of Ptah (his favorite of Egyptian gods) at nearby Esna. At Karnak, the Gateway of Ptolemy III went up nearby the Temple of Khonsu and a birth house – mammisi – was added to the Temple of Isis at Philae in the far south.

He died at the end of 222BC with his son Ptolemy IV succeeding him.

PTOLEMY IV

At the age of 20 years, Ptolemy IV came to power. Under the influence of two advisors, a large-scale purge of the royal family took place. His uncle, younger brother and mother all died. Following the old Egyptian practice, he married his sister Arsinoe III in 220 BC. Then, following Ptolemaic tradition, he involved himself in the Fourth Syrian War against the Seleucids. Regaining losses occurred in the Third War after the battle of Raphia 22 June 217 BC, he regained the province of Coele-Syria. The costs involved in his military ventures left the government with no option but to increase taxes.

To try and deal with native disquiet, Ptolemy IV continued supporting temple construction begun by his father. During his reign, much of the structure took shape along with much of the interior decorations which emphasized his military acumen and pious attitude towards the gods. The annual coronation rituals where Horus received kingship from Ra and Osiris while the king likewise received his kingship from Ra and Horus took place.

Taxes and love of a luxurious lifestyle led to revolts in the north and south beginning in 206 BC which would last for the next twenty years beyond Ptolemy IV’s life which ended towards the end of 205 BC. His six-year-old son Ptolemy V became king next though his reign would be beset with problems including a Fifth Syrian War.

PTOLEMY VIII

Civil wars and unrest halted construction here at Edfu for many years. One of Ptolemy VIII’s heroes, none other than Ptolemy III, so he finished the temple with a lavish dedication ceremony – 10 September 142 BC. The temple became officially consecrated in the presence of Ptolemy VIII and his wife. The building work continued in 140 BC with the pronaos, then the pylon and the surrounding wall. The second consecration of the temple took place in 70 BC, though the monumental door from the cedars of Lebanon went into place only in 56 BC. The inner hypostyle hall was inscribed with scenes from Ptolemy VIII’s coronation along with a birth house constructed in front of the temple. A portico also became added on during his reign.

PTOLEMY XII

Regencies and more wars with the Seleucids continued to weaken the Ptolemaic power structure especially with the coming of Rome onto the power scene of the Mediterranean. Ptolemy XII also known as the Neos Dionysos – the New Dionysos – had his turn. He hoped, in a time of dwindling Ptolemaic options, to insert himself into the dream of the Greek-speaking population that he was the second coming, “a new Dionysos on earth”.

Keeping close in thought and heart to the local priesthoods of Egypt, he lavished monies his state was quickly running out of (the result of more wars with the Seleucids) on temples and one of those was here. By the time the temple here finally became officially consecrated – 57 BC, Ptolemaic power seeped away quickly, replaced soon by Roman legions.

The quality of decorations seems to have suffered as the Ptolemaic era drew on and with pharaonic power ebbing, the priests began to distance rituals from the older stories. Time for a change.

ROME

From the 1st century AD on, Egyptian cults, particularly of Isis, became quite in vogue in Rome. Religious activity continued throughout the Roman era in Egypt. Like the Ptolemies before them, the Roman emperors strove to associate themselves with Egyptian gods to further legitimize their own divine personal authority. Linking Horus to Apollo let Romans enjoy the fun, as well.

In everyday rituals, priests fulfilled assigned duties, officially in the name of the king. The pharaoh was the essential element of the iconographic system, but outside the pictorial context he seems conceptually dispensable. The Ptolemies might have regarded it beneficial to gain this religious legitimacy, but Roman emperors do not seem concerned about this, even if they might have minded being seen doing the proper things in the temple context. Few emperors visited Egypt, meaning Egypt was not high on their list of priorities.

In a rather smooth transition from the Ptolemaic to the Roman period, Egyptian temples continued to be built and decorated well into the 2nd century AD and, on a much smaller scale, into the beginning of the fourth century. The Roman pharaoh became an essential element of their iconographic system, but outside the pictorial context of the Egyptian temples, they seem to have been conceptually dispensable. The Roman emperors primarily played a fictitious role as cultic pharaohs, though historical-political facts reflected in the cult reliefs and inscriptions occur as late as the beginning of the fourth century.

THE TEMPLE

The Great Pylons

Two huge pylons rise on either side of the entrance into the temple. Carved reliefs of Ptolemy XII show him smiting his adversaries on the outer edge of the pylons. Four indentations – two on either side – into the pylon once held tall 130 foot – 40 meter – tall flagpoles. The entrance doors – doors made from Lebanese cedar – became the last features added to the temple in 57 BC.

Within the towers of the pylon are four stories of chambers and storerooms accessed by staircase which also lead to the pylon roof. Large granite statues of Horus in falcon form stand on either side of the entrance at ground level. At the feet of the falcon statue on the left, stands supposedly the Caesarion – Ptolemy XV, but that would mean this statue became added after the temple dedication since he was not born until 47 BC. Others note the statue simply represents the pharaoh stands protected by Horus.

Forecourt

Passing through the entrance leads you to a large courtyard – the Court of Offerings – surrounded by three sides by 32 columns. Scenes from the Feast of the Beautiful Meeting stand carved onto the forecourt. Evidence of earlier temple of Horus has been found here. Reused sandstones bear the names of Djehuty (Sixteenth Dynasty), and Psamtek II (Twenty-sixth Dynasty) appeared, found beneath the courtyard pavement.

At the opposite end of the courtyard, stands another pair of falcons in front of the entrance to the temple. This court received the statue of Hathor during the Festival of the Beautiful Meeting.

Peristyle Halls

There are next two hypostyle halls. The outer hall dates to the reign of Ptolemy VII with two chambers at the entrance. On the right stood the temple library where ritual texts were stored. On the left was the hall of consecrations where ritual robes and vases were kept. Above, the ceiling shows astronomical imagery while the side walls have reliefs showing the foundation ceremony of the temple and the deification of Horus. The doorway ahead leads to the heart of the temple. Usually, the doors remained closed to the public except during festivals.

moving inside

The inner hypostyle hall – the Festival Hall – dates to Ptolemy III, though it was completed by his son Ptolemy IV. Like the outer hall, there are twelve columns only here the roof is lower down and the floor rises slightly. One the east side was a chamber for storing liquid offerings – Room of the Nile. A chamber on the west side – Treasury – held solid offerings. A laboratory also existed where incense, perfumes and ointments became prepared, the recipes inscribed on the walls.

Beyond the inner hypostyle hall lay a narrow room – Offering Hall – where food and oil offerings were burnt so the smoke and aroma could nourish the gods allegorically.

Naos

Entering the naos of the temple, the Vestibule stands before the innermost sections with the sanctuary and surrounding chapels. On either side, two staircases gain access to the roof. Like the temple in Dendara, during the New Year Festival, Horus would be carried to the temple’s rooftop by way of the ascending stairway. Horus became re-energized by the heat and light of the Sun. Afterwards; the image returned to the Sanctuary down the other descending stairway. The depiction of the ritual decorates the walls along the two stairways.

The heart of the Naos is the Sanctuary where there is a granite shrine dating back to Nectanebo II, last ruler of the Thirtieth Dynasty. In saving this shrine from an earlier temple, the thought goes that the new linked directly to the past. Within the shrine stood a golden statue of Horus, now long gone. There were an offering table and the sacred barque of Horus. During the festivals, Horus would perch atop the barque and carried out. The barque today is a replica. Inscriptions inside show Ptolemy IV worshipping Horus and Hathor.

SURROUNDS

Thirteen chapels and chambers surrounding the Sanctuary are dedicated to a host of other gods.  The doorjams stand marked with the name of the god or goddesses within and inside were statues of the deities. Also, on the east side of the Sanctuary outside was a well supplying water to the temple. It also served as a Nilometer used by priests to measure the level of the river. The door frame of the sanctuary includes inscriptions of hymns sung in the morning before opening the bronze doors of the sanctuary to wake up Horus and the other deities sleeping in their chapels.

The vast number of inscriptions from the walls of the temple took French Egyptologist Èmile Chassinet 40 years to compile. He ended with eight volumes of hieroglyphic texts (,000 pages) with two volumes of sketches and four volumes of photographs. The work of translation continues today.

MAMMISI

In front of the great temple of Horus at Edfu is a mammisi or birth house. Mammisi became added to major Egyptian temples in Upper Egypt to reassert Ptolemaic linkage to earlier divine generations. The mammisi here dramatized the birth of divine birth of Harsomtus, son of the divine couple Horus of Edfu and Hathor of Dendera.  Legitimize the god, the thought went, you legitimize the ruling dynasty working in partnership.

Reliefs covering the walls of the Edfu mammisi present a tightly focused narrative: scenes of the divine birth, the attendance of birth-deities (notably Hathor and Khnum), ritual anointings, the presentation of the newborn god, and episodes where the king partakes in or legitimates the event. The iconography emphasizes fertility, protection and royal endorsement; for example, Hathor appears in roles associated with mothering and music, Khnum with the fashioning of the child on his potter’s wheel, and Horus as the divine son whose generation secures the continuity of kingship.

BIRTH FESTIVAL

Mammisi functioned as a stage for an annual “birth” festival, reenacting the divine nativity. Details in the inscriptions and in comparative mammisi at sites likes Dendera and Philae point to public performance elements — singing, dancing and a procession through the courtyard connecting temple elite, king, and local community in a visible affirmation of divine order. The courtyard and approach to the mammisi allowed for congregational presence while the inner sanctum hosted the ritual centerpiece. The building served both as an architectural marker of Ptolemaic religious policy and as a living theatre for communal religious practice.

Two kings stand mentioned in the temple’s inscriptions: Ptolemy VIII and his son Ptolemy IX. Inscriptions on the walls of the mammisi suggest that the festival also included a dramatic recreation of the divine birth scene. Approximately 200 ritual scenes are depicted throughout this temple, and the most important are concerned with birth, nutrition, and coronation of the divine child. Also, the walls seen covered with various protective gods and spells to safeguard the mother and child during childbirth. 

THE BIRTH HOUSE OF A GOD

Because the divine child associated with the rising sun, the mammisi of Edfu is oriented facing east. Walls of the inner sanctuary and some other important scenes originally lie covered with gold sheets, which would have reflected the sunlight, reminding the viewer of this association. At Edfu, there are scant traces of a former paneling of the western inner wall of the sanctuary with gold sheets. The core of the building composed of a sanctuary for the temple’s main statue, fronted by an offering room and two side chapels.

The northern chapel had access to the roof through a staircase. A corridor around the structure was delimited by tall columns linked by screen walls. These columns represent bundles of papyrus, marsh plants, and flowers, and referring to the myth of Isis giving birth to and hiding her son Horus in the Delta marshes. Inscriptions and scenes depicted on the external walls of the sanctuary and outer corridor refer to this myth. Atop each column is a carved image of Bes, a dwarf god who protected mothers and children during childbirth

 VISITING

Touring Edfu is a bit like going back or Luxor or Giza, the crowds return. Most Nile River cruise ships stop here. The site opens at 0600 and reports have of lines already form that early. We enjoyed breakfast first watching the horse buggies rolling off to take visitors to the site from the river. Most cruise ships leave by midday having to get back downriver to Luxor – that means they have to get in line for the lock at Esna. If you not tied to a ship, then maybe afternoon might better suit a visit though the closing time of 1700 should remain in mind.

Many people transfer over to the temple site from the river on horse-drawn carriages. Some of the horses simply do not receive humane care, though not all. That is the reason Viking Cruise line has brought in buses – a move not well thought of by local carriage drivers, of course.

The vendors at the entrance – you see them again going out – can be pushy, but then, that seems to be a point of life at Egyptian archaeological sites. Visits from tour groups also tend to not take up much time. That is fine for the normal visitor who really does not have much of an idea of what they are seeing. I certainly fell into that category and tried to make up for it by clicking a lot of pictures (Of course, afterwards, you always find out you did not take enough pictures!).

Costs for entrance are 550 Egyptian pounds.

CROWDS RETURN

One web blogger writes about being turned off by Edfu though they loved Philae. Philae was much more overrun when we visited, though it is still worth a visit to further understand the Ptolemaic-Roman era of Egyptian history. While the crowds were definitely much worse than our visits to Kom Ombo and Dendera, Edfu certainly did not rate worse for crowds than Philae and was definitely nothing like Giza, Luxor or Karnak.

Costs for entrance go for 550 Egyptian pounds. There is a train station if you are not on a cruise, but it is on the other side of the Nile.

ESNA

If you visit Edfu, you might also stop at Esna – ancient Iynit of the Egyptians and Latopolis of the Greeks. Most ships do get to stop at Esna, though not necessarily to dock. Here is the one dam-lock encountered on the upper Nile between Luxor and Aswan. First come first through equals a race of cruise ships heading up and down the Nile. We were lucky since Viking Cruises have the most modern and fastest ships on the river. The afternoon we left Luxor turned into a race which we on the Thoth crushed everyone else.

The Egyptian temple here at Esna is nowhere near as large as other temples along the river like Dendara, Edfu or Koh Ombo. But that can be a big plus. It is Ptolemaic in origin with some of the most significant Roman additions found to temples in Egypt. You do not need a bus or horse-driven carriage to reach it, only a short walk from the river.

Temple

The temple seen here sits on an early one built during the reign of Thutmose III. The temple you see is definitely Ptolemaic in design and has been included by the Egyptian government in consideration by the UN for another UNESCO status award. This award includes three other temples built along the Nile during the Ptolemaic era – Esna, Edfu, Dendara and Philae. Here at Esna, the temple is dedicated to the god Khnum who molded ka on his potter’s wheel. Other deities are worshipped, as well, Neith (goddess of war and weaving), Heka (magic) Satet (a goddess of the Nile) and Menhet (lion goddess also wife of Khnum here at Easna).

INSIDE

The plan is much like that of Edfu and Dendara with two hypostyle halls in front of a sanctuary. The temple lies almost thirty feet (nine meters) below the ground level of today’s city. In the hypostyle hall, there are twenty-four columns supporting a roof. Here, lots of texts decorate the columns with several Roman emperors mingling with the ancient Egyptian gods. The north wall shows a pharaoh catching wild birds symbolizing him subduing evil spirits. Calendars, astronomical figures on the ceilings and Roman zodiac symbols complete the picture. On the east and west corners, a hymn to Khnum appears using a non-traditional crocodile head on one side and the more traditional ram head on the other.

The hypostyle hall has been excavated but much of the rest of the temple still lies under sands and material from centuries of Nile inundations. Some of the temple utilized masonry blocks from the earlier temple, but the main part of the temple seen today comes from the reign of Ptolemy VI and VIII. The temple also shows a bit of Roman development not seen in other Upper Egyptian temples from Claudius (41-54 AD) to Decius (249-251 AD).

Visiting

There is more to see in Esna besides the temple. If you come by ship, then you will walk directly up past the recently restored and developed Wekalet Al-Geddawi, an Ottoman caravansary built in 1792 to store goods and lodge travelling merchants. The temple is just across the way. The street leading away parallel to the temple boasts a traditional covered Ottoman-era Al-Qīsāriyya Market. Entry into the caravanserai costs no extra if you have a ticket to the temple.

Cost for entry is 200 Egyptian pounds. The site remains under excavation by German and Egyptian archaeologists. A train station exists on the other side of the river crossed by way of the dam-lock configuration on the north side of Esna.

FURTHER

Toby Wilkinson’s The Nile, The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt and The Last Dynasty are all great sources to start from. There is also Garry Shaw’s Egyptian Mythology; A Traveler’s Guide from Aswan to Alexandria.