In the last post, we saw Johan Georg Rapp and 600 like-minded Pietists coming from Germany to establish a new communal settlement just north of the Ohio River called Harmonie. After a decade, they set out downriver to build a New Harmony along the banks of the Wabash River in southern Indiana. Another decade brought Rapp and his followers back upriver to found their last town, Oikonomie, better known as Economy. Here, Rapp would continue to change the focus of simple agricultural communalism to more of a spirit of amassing wealth – still within a communal picture. This would allow Rapp and the Harmony Society to greet Jesus’ return at the beginning of the Second Coming with enough material sustenance to last the thousand years of the new Millennium.

NOTE: This is the fourth post of four moving back in time from the German-American communal town in Oregon of Aurora to other like settlements from which the Aurorans sprung out from.

In 1825, the ever-restless “Father” Johann Georg Rapp led his followers of the Harmonist Society back up the Ohio River to found their third and final town, Ökonomie – Economy.  Their experience with the first home, Harmonie, greatly helped them in their second venture, New Harmony, Indiana.

INDIANAN DREAMS

In New Harmony, the Harmonists gathered well over 20,000 acres during their time.  Frederick Rapp, adopted son of Father Rapp, further honed his administrative and financial skills to establish a very successful venture during their time in Indiana.  Adding on to already successful distilling and brewing operations in Pennsylvania, the Harmonists were able to use the larger and more agreeable soil conditions to greatly increase their agricultural surpluses for sale.    They also developed community stores – not only in Harmony but outside locations, as well – which sold many other frontier essentials to outside settlers.  The estimated increase in per capita wealth for members of the Society increased from $25 in 1807 to $2000 in 1825 – as compared to $200 for the average American and $150 for the average Indianan.

Rapp had introduced Merino sheep to breed with local stock in Harmony.  Eventually there were over a thousand sheep and the Harmonists were able to continue to increase their able to market their woolen cloth on the domestic market.

A bank opened in Vincennes to ease financial transactions for the Society.  This also lessened the concerns Father Rapp had in hiding the wealth of his community from the outside world.

BEYOND AGRICULTURAL BEGINNINGS

While agriculture remained at the center of the Society, the community had attracted skilled artisans from its beginnings in Germany.  Rapp believed in industrial technology bringing in new machinery to diversify the community’s economic basis.  Steam powered engines powered grinding and hemp mills also generating heat.  New wagon and flatboat designs acted upon.  The first fire engine and independent printing press in Indiana were seen in New Harmony.

MEMBERSHIP ISSUES

Celibacy had been introduced into the Society in Pennsylvania.  The goal was always to make ready for the Second Coming of Jesus. The New Millennium thought to be at hand during the lifetime of Society members.  Celibacy has a way of curtailing membership and to get around that initially, Rapp allowed for more fellow believers back in Germany – Württemberg, specifically – to emigrate to New Harmony in1817 and 1818.  The Society paid the way for these new members to travel to the New World.  The new emigrants accepted as full members after a trial period of six to eight months.

Of the 200 new emigrants in 1817, half of them did not continue from Philadelphia to New Harmony due to a negative reputation beginning to build.  Many went to Zoar in eastern Ohio where another German-American commune existed.  Rapp required new members to sign the 1805 Articles of Agreement. This meant they could not expect to receive anymore than what they brought into the Society when they joined.  In addition, he changed the rules noting that from then forward, if people left the Society they would receive nothing.

Rapp also thought the new immigrants lacked the proper spiritual drive, thinking too much of themselves.  With celibacy and now, a restriction on German Pietist immigration, the Harmony Society was doomed unless Jesus did show up.

OTHER FACTORS

The new immigrants versus old Society members was reflected in native-born American settlers in Indiana.  “They refuse to bear arms” – a militia requirement for all Indianans – the thought that New Harmony did not pay their fair share in taxes and “they vote by the advice of their Head, Mr. Rapp” was indicative of changing relations between the Society and outside.  Added to the fact that the Society simply being more effective financially than individual Indianans led to a lot of angst between outside and in.

With a decade ending in Indiana, Rapp begin to think his move was a mistake.  The American west seen slow to develop economically. The Harmonists exported their goods a long way to markets over routes not improved due to financial depression.  Life was simply too easy for the Harmonists, as well, and Rapp looked to engage his community once again in the building a new town.

REMOVAL

Once the decision to resettle came, Frederick Rapp was able to find land eighteen miles north of Pittsburgh on the Ohio River in one month.  Better access to markets – Father Rapp wanted to welcome Christ’s return with a mass of riches to make the new Millenium easier, better post communication, less friction with neighbors, less corrupt banks, and more affinity to Pennsylvanian Germans who more attuned to German needs were all reasons to move.

The whole community in 1825 was sold to Robert Owen for $150,000 with an additional $40,000 – minus $5000 to the sales agent Robert Flowers – for livestock and manufacturing equipment.  497 members of the Society signed the document giving Father Rapp their approval before the sale.

ECONOMY

George Rapp was 68 years old in 1825 when Economy was founded.  He still believed Christ would return within his lifetime.  He now did not think the return would happen in America, however, but in Palestine.  To have enough money to ensure his faithful could travel meant a lot more money needed earning  Hence the re-concentration of the Harmony Society in their new digs along the Ohio River towards manufacturing and business.  Isolation in New Harmony traded for contact with the outside world in order to amass greater wealth to usher in the new Millennium.

In their new home, in 1827, Rapp wrote a revised Articles of Association in Economy with the help of an outside attorney.  Now, people leaving the Society would not be entitled to anything but minor compensation at the discretion of Rapp according to their stay in the community.

Although the new Articles were signed by most members, many refused. A lot of were not happy, also with Rapp using a non-member attorney to re-draft the agreement.  Rapp went from being first among many to being first, all by himself. Over 200 petitioners within and out the Society demanded a state investigation of Economy and Rapp. They complained of Rapp’s tyrannical rule demanding unconstitutional obedience, damning members to Hell, changing laws at will, and being an excessive wine drinker.  The petition was squashed with the help of his attorney and the political connections of Frederick, but unrest was visible.

Much through Frederick’s ministrations, the total income of the Society had increased four times by 1830 over that of 1826. Silk-raising efforts led by Father Rapp’s granddaughter Gertrude among one of the many ventures.

TWENTY YEARS OF CELIBACY

Younger members had enough of celibacy after twenty years and still no sign of Jesus.  Births before 1814 had numbered 262.  In Indiana, there were 69 births in the ten years.  During the first five years of Economy, 25 children were born.  Rapp also built the Great House in Economy, complete with a flower garden, labyrinth, fishpond, bandstand and a Greek-styled grotto, a bit too worldly for someone who believing he would soon be going to Palestine to meet up with the returned Christ.

there always seems to be a woman

Even more serious for Economy was the May-December relationship between Hildegard Mutschler and Rapp.  Hildegard was born in Harmony in 1806.  She became Rapp’s confidant – rumormongers claimed lover, as well.  Her knowledge of botany and companionship displaced Frederick as Rapp’s chief adviser in 1828 and 1829.  She ran off with a younger Society member in 1829 causing Rapp to banish the young man from the Society. Hildegard actually would return and elope with another Society member – Conrad Feucht – later on. Rapp would use all of his powers of persuasion to allow the couple to return to Economy in 1833, another act damaging to his standing.

The effect on Father Rapp’s relationship with Frederick was, however, forever damaged.  Writing to Rapp in 1829, Frederick said “I have on account of this little creature suffered heavily for more than three years because she took my place, for she was really your confidential counsel, not by your determination, but this became a natural thing through the extensive association with you, for I always found out from her first what you wanted to do in building or in changing of families, etc. and this confidence, of which she was never worthy, caused me to withdraw my confidence from you, which, however, was very hard for me to do because I always saw how your honesty was abused by her.”

SECOND COMING?

Making matters worse, George Rapp predicted the Second Coming – ushered in by the elect of the Society in Economy – would occur September 15, 1829.  September 16 came, and nothing changed.  Rapp’s gain a bit of respite when he received a letter from a mysterious German who claimed to hold the Philosopher’s Stone, the Count Maximillian de Leon. (Philosopher’s Stone supposedly turns stone to gold).

The Count – one Bernard Müller – arrived from Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Riding in a carriage draw by four horses and dressed in full military attire with a sword at his side and forty members of his entourage in October 1831.  It did not take long for George and Frederick to see Count Leon as a fraud. Other members used the Count as their reason to rebel against Father Rapp.

THE COUNT CAUSES A SPLIT

The Count did not want to take over Economy but did look to establish his own group to welcome in the new Millennium.  175 members decided to leave with the Count especially over the celibacy issue.  Frederick decided to reach an agreement and three installments of a total of $105,000 in three installments decided upon for the group leaving to relinquish claims to Society property.

Frederick tried to appeal to Father Rapp to change his mind to the celibacy issue – not only would the Society lose a chunk of money, but a third of its workforce.  Father Rapp responded, “and thou too, Brutus.”  This, the Hildegarde affair and suspicions that George was sequestering funds caused a permanent rift between the two.

THE THIRD PART

Rapp used the split in Economy to cite Revelation 12: 3,4 “and his tail drew the third part of the stars of heaven, and did cast them to the earth:  and the dragon stood before the woman which was ready to be delivered, for to devour her child as soon as it was born.”  Leon’s appearance was thus pre-ordained.

Leon’s followers went downriver to Phillipsburg.  Leon himself, absconded to Louisiana. Most of those who left Economy stayed to await Wilhelm Keil’s appearance in the late 1830-early 1840’s.

CONTINUING TOWARDS THE MILLENIUM

Despite the secession of so many, the Society’s commercial enterprises successfully continued.  Frederick continued guiding the community on the economic end of affairs. The rift with Father Rapp took its toll on him physically with Frederick dying in June 1834 at sixty.  George Rapp took control of all Society affairs, but he appointed Frederick’s proteges Romulus Baker and Jacob Henrici to conduct external affairs.

Knowing the Second Coming just around the corner, Rapp made several withdrawals of funds in gold and silver storing the amounts in the basement of the Great House in Economy.  The funds were for the Societal move to Palestine. By 1846, Rapp had over a half million dollars in gold and silver stored in the basement.  He burned banking records and refused to tell Baker or Henrici where the money was.

end of glory years dies with father rapp

By 1847, 327 remained in the Harmony Society with the majority being women.  Rapp died 7 August in Economy at the age of eighty-nine.  His final words being, “If I did not so fully believe that the Lord has designed me to place our society before his presence in the Land of Canaan, I would consider this my last.”

Father Rapp, like Frederick before him, was buried in an unmarked grave in the harmonist cemetery in Economy.  Like their leader, the rest of the Society was aging quickly too.  The mills became silent as members were too old to work within. By the end of the Civil War, half of the remaining members died.

THE LONG DECLINE

Baker and Henrici split duties in running the post-Rapp Society. Romelius Baker – an original Society member with the longer family name of Langenbacher – ran the temporal side of things, while Henrici mounted the pulpit.

Using Society funds, raiding the Palestine funds Baker made investments in western Pennsylvania – coal mines, timber and oil generated plenty of capital to take care of the aging Society population.  Without a workforce, outside help became the main force.  Baker died in 1868 leaving Henrici – he did not join the Society until 1827 – in charge.

Henrici did not have the business acumen of Baker. He spent lots of money on charity during his sojourn.  So much, that it took him seven months to complete an accounting of Society Funds in 1891.  He ended up mortgaging several properties for $400,000. However, he died at 89 at the end of 1892 before he could follow up.

ENTER THE JESTER

The final saga of the Harmony Society was to be written by John Duss.  He came to the Society as a young boy with his mother during the Civil War.  The mother, who was not a Society member, but one of the many who worked alongside, had left with the father who, impressed into the Confederate army, had died after Gettysburg. 

Duss had grown up as a boy in Economy with his mother working as helper to the older members.  He then spent his education and younger years away in the Midwest, marrying another young member of the Society, Susanna.  Returning to Economy in response to Henrici’s request for him to be a teacher at the local school. Duss was shortly named to the Board of Trustees.  With Henrici’s death, Duss became president of the Society at the age of 32.

Duss had never known Frederick or George Rapp in Economy.  He was basically an outsider.  Never seeking to welcome Christ’s return, he would go on to loot “the treasury and shut the movement down.”

financial insolvency

Duss’s first few years were spent defending the remaining Society assets from lawsuits. He claimed the Society was in debt by $1.5 million.  The Supreme Court eventually ruled in favor of Duss and the Society’s eight remaining members.

In 1900, Duss sold 150 of riverfront land to the Berlin Iron Bridge Company. They quickly began to build mills on the land. 

Berlin became one of the 28 companies making up the American Bridge Company.  The company built the largest bridge building and structural steel fabricating plant in the world. They employed over 4,000 workers and changed the name of the town from Economy to Ambridge. 1902 saw Duss sell off the remainder of Harmonist lands to American Bridge for $2.5 million.  The dream of George Rapp and his Economy disappearing quickly.

A MUSICAL INTERLUDE

Duss celebrated by buying the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra of New York and making himself conductor.  Using $100,000 Society dollars in 1903, he converted Madison Square Garden into a replica of Venice with canals, gondolas and a chorus of 1,000.  When he ran out of money, he resigned as president – his wife took over. 

Moving to Florida, Susie formally disbanded the Harmony Society in 1903 with the other surviving member, Franz Gillmann.  Franz moved his share to the Dusses. In exchange for taking him along to Florida and taking care of him for the rest of his life – he died in 1921. 

The Dusses made off with nearly $4 million with the closure of the Society – there were other lands to sell. Lawsuits had to be warded off until 1916 when the assets of the Society were split between the Dusses and the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.  Duss spent the rest of his life – he lived until 1951 dying at 91 – living in Ambridge and New Smyrna, Florida.  He is buried with his wife in an unmarked grave in the Harmonist Cemetery in Economy.

longer version

For a much longer version of the long decline, try and find a copy of Arndt, Karl J.R. George Rapp’s Successors and Material Heirs (1847-1916). Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses, 1971. There is also John S. Duss’ own autobiography The Harmonists: A Personal Remembrance. Harrisburg: Telegraph Press, 1943. A very nice condensed version of the events can also be found here.

AMBRIDGE

Ambridge’s subsequent history is much different than that of Economy. A huge factory town built by immigrant workers. The company went on to build many of the largest bridges across America. As with its parent company, US Steel, huge contractions followed the heady glory days. American Bridge still exists on a much smaller scale upriver in Coraopolis, roughly halfway towards Pittsburgh on the opposite side.

OLd economy village

Six acres of Economy with associated buildings became the property of Pennsylvania in 1916 at the end of a long legal battle with John and Susie Duss – and Franz. Father Rapp had always wanted any monies accumulated by the Society to go the Second Coming. In the extraordinary event that did not occur before no Harmonists remained to welcome Jesus, then the monies should go to the State. Needless to say, the Dusses had other ideas.

The grounds were reconstituted in 1919 as Old Economy Village, a state historic site.  The historic site contains the religious and economic hub of the Harmony Society built between 1824 and 1830. The buildings, grounds, library, archives, and original artifacts a memorial to the Society’s commitment to religious discipline and economic industry in their American Utopia.

VISITING ECONOMY TODAY

Visits to the Old Economy Village should begin at the excellent Visitor Center just to the north of the main part of the village.  The exhibits inside go a long way to explaining the history, beliefs and customs of the Harmony Society, George Rapp and Economy.

main village – garden

The main village is located several short blocks to the south.  Here you find the heart of the Society.  At the center is the Great Garden.  Rapp, an enthusiastic botanist, always loved plants.  His love of alchemy not centered upon making gold out of stone but finding a way through plants to prolong life so he could truly witness the Second Coming.

The garden centers around a Pavilion which features inside a statue symbolizing Harmony.  The original wooden statue was replaced with a more enduring one in the 1950’s.  A fishpond surrounds the Pavilion.

Further off in a corner of the Garden is a rough rock Grotto – rough on the outside, but sublime on the inside. The Garden should not be mistaken for the Labyrinth, for such a maze was also constructed further afield – now lost to time. 

A Labyrinth was established at each of the three Harmonist villages – the one in New Harmony, Indiana was resurrected from old plans in 1938.  The Garden is thought to represent the Garden of Eden as opposed to the Labyrinth’s purpose of showing the many difficulties in finding the right path in life.

main village – great houses and feast house

Flanking the east side of the Garden is the Great House where George Rapp and his family lived.  In time, other chiefs of the Society – Henrici, Duss – would share the house with other family retainers.

Along the north side of the House is the former home of Frederick Rapp, administrative heart of the Society until 1834.

Directly north of Frederick Rapp’s home is the Feast Hall.  On the first floor Frederick established a museum of natural science open to members for free and non-members for ten cents.  The second floor is where members would come for communal meals held a few times a year.  Musical recitals – important in the cultural life of the Society – also took place here.

main village – other buildings

Going towards the river from the Feast Hall, the next building is the Mechanics Building where tailors and shoemakers worked – possible printing press, too.  A wine cellar capable of holding over 1,200 gallons of wine was located beneath.

The store and post office were in the next building.  Non-members were welcome to make purchases in this store of the many products manufactured here at Economy.

The last house was that of Romelius Baker who followed George Rapp as head adviser to the Society at Rapp’s death.

Just to the north of the Feast Hall you find the communal kitchen where the feast meals were prepared for the whole Society on those special occasion.  Next door is the main Granary of the community.  Able to hold a year’s supply of grain, there was also a cider storage area.

beyond the village

Across the street from the Great House is the former Colony Church. Today, the church houses the St John Lutheran congregation of Ambridge.  The platform on the clocktower was where the colony brass band would hold forth from.  Separate entrances served men and women.  The church dates to 1831.  The old Harmonist church only has an hour hand on the clocktower.  Time was a little more general in the day.

An excellent walking tour map is available from the Visitor Center showing sites and homes away from the main village center.  The Harmonist homes were large and still identifiable with differing exterior shells from post-Society days.  As celibacy went forward, “families” became immaterial.  People shunted about one house to another living with their brothers and sisters in what became to look more like apartments.

While many of the mills of the Society are gone today, the Cemetery still exists down south of the Village three blocks on Church Street.  There are no headstones, just an empty grassy plain.  Headstones were irrelevant since the Second Coming made everything else irrelevant.